An armoire was once considered a very necessary piece of furniture in many homes. It wasn’t until the middle of the 20th century that architects began including more closets into their designs.

Although they haven’t been a necessary item in a long time, today, they’re a much cherished and loved piece of furniture.

If you have an antique armoire or are planning on purchasing one, there are several things that you can look at to

determine the time frame when an antique armoire was built.

You don’t need to hire a professional to get an approximate age of an antique.

First of all, you’ll want to determine whether or not the armoire is indeed an antique. And, there are a few simple clues that will establish that it is an older piece of furniture.

The majority of antiques were made entirely by hand, which means that they’re not completely perfect.

Types of wood

Most antiques will also be constructed of several types of wood. Because it didn’t make sense economically to use expensive types of wood in the areas that didn’t show, the bottoms, backs or insides are often made from cheaper woods such as pine or maple.

Reproductions tend to be made using the same wood from top to bottom.

Carved areas

If the armoire has any carved areas, run your finger along the edges. Antiques were all carved by hand and the carvings should feel slightly bumpy and uneven. If the lines are smooth and perfectly carved, it was done by a machine and is a good indicator that it’s a newer piece.

Signs of shrinkage and the wood darkens

Because wood contains a lot of water, an antique will show some signs of shrinkage and the wood darkens with age. Since thinner panels of wood shrink faster, the best place to look for this clue is around any edges of panels, such as in the door.

If the panels don’t completely fit against the frame, this could be a sign of shrinkage from age. However, you should also be able to notice that wood in the gaps between the panel and the frame are lighter in color than the rest of the frame.

And, there may also be splits or cracks on the armoire due to shrinkage.

Hinges, knobs or handles

Next you should carefully inspect the hardware such as hinges, knobs or handles. If the hardware is vintage, it will have a patina. Patina refers to the discoloration, usually a greenish color caused by oxidation and is a good sign of age.

The wood around the hardware should also be darker due to oxidation.

There are two main ways that almost anyone can determine an approximate date of when an antique armoire was built. You can usually get a good idea from the way the wood was cut and how the armoire was put together.

The way in which the piece is put together is very important in determining age.

Signs of saw marks

Inspect the armoire for any signs of saw marks, generally on the back or the underside. If the marks are straight, but irregular, it indicates that the piece was built prior to 1830. Around 1830, most wood was cut by a sawmill which left straight, more even marks.

The circular saw wasn’t invented until around 1850. So, if there are cuts that have a circular shape, the piece was made after 1850. Also, run your hand over the exposed surfaces of the wood.

Antiques were all sanded by hand and the surface should feel slightly uneven and not completely smooth.

Nails and screws

Another very good indication of age is the nails and screws that were used in the armoire. During the 1700’s, blacksmiths forged nails individually. After the nail was shaped, it was placed into a heading tool and struck several times with a hammer to form the square head.

Between 1790 and 1890, cut nails were commonly used. And, beginning around 1880, nails were produced by machines and had round shaped heads. Screws were all handmade up until around 1815. The head slot was cut by hand and were rarely cut straight across the center of the flat screw head.

In most cases only a professional will know how to date an antique bed. With so many copies and reproductions being made, sometimes only a well trained eye can tell the difference.

However, while you might not get an exact date there are several steps for how to date an antique bed.

If you’re buying a antique bed from an individual, it’s always a good idea to inquire about the beds history. If the bed has been in their family for a long time, they should be able to give you a good idea of when the bed was made.

They may even be able to tell you exactly when the bed was purchased.

Check for any labels or identifying marks

One of the first steps that you should take to determine the beds age is to check for any labels or identifying marks. In the nineteenth century, manufacturers began assigning numbers to each new patent.

If the bed has a number, you can search for it at the patent office to find the manufacturer and date.

Look at any hardware used on the piece

Another excellent way of dating a piece of furniture is to look at any hardware used on the piece. Prior to 1830, very few furniture makers used screws.

Instead, pieces of furniture were held together with the use of dowels or pegs. And, since they were made by hand they won’t be uniform in size.

The earliest screws were fairly short, generally no longer than one half inch and had flat heads.

The tips of the screws were blunt and the threads were barely visible. The slots in the screw heads were all cut by hand, so they aren’t generally centered.

Glue wasn’t used until the early eighteenth century.

Nails

If there are any nails in your antique bed, examine them closely even if you have to use a magnifying glass. The nail head should be square, but not perfectly square and it should be slightly worn down from age. If the nails show these signs, the bed might have been made before 1820.

The circular saw wasn’t invented until the end of the eighteenth century. Before that all wood was cut by hand and there should be visible signs of saw marks.

Often, the cuts weren’t completely straight and there may be slight gaps between wood pieces.

Veneer panels

If the antique bed has any veneer panels you might be able to get a close estimate of the date it was made by examining them closely. The earliest  veneers were made of walnut and were usually about an eighth of an inch thick.

And, often the grains in the veneers didn’t match perfectly.

The earliest pieces of furniture were constructed of solid wood. From around 1680, veneers became a really popular way to add decorative touches to furniture.

They were either cut with the grain of the wood to look fairly plain, or cut across the grain to be more decorative.

Because antique beds were made entirely by hand, they’re not completely perfect. And, since they are so old, they will generally show lot’s of signs of use.

Although, you can find some antique beds that have been kept in mint condition, if it looks almost new, it’s probably not very old.

These are just a few of the numerous ways of how to tell if a bed is antique. If it’s really important for you to know the exact age of a piece of antique furniture, you will probably have to have a professional dealer inspect the piece.

They will be able to distinguish whether you have a valuable antique, or just an older piece of furniture.

I’m posting a mail sent by Leslie…

I just purchased a kitchen hutch or cupboard. It looks to me like it was produced in Kansas City Missouri. It says Union Made on the back of it with the number 44. It is a cream color with two glass covered doors and red accent painted or stenciled on the inside of the glass doors.

It does have one drawer below with a red drawer pull and two small wooden doors with red door pulls below that. Also, has 1P51A8 I believe stamped on the back.

Can anyone help me to identify it’s age and tell me anything about it?

I purchased this piece at an estate sale in Arkansas this weeked. This was supposed to be her mother’s piece and I believe she stated it came from her mother’s home before that.

The daughter was about mid 60’s in age so maybe this would help you with age or date produced… It looks like it is either 40’s or 50’s to me but I really don’t know a lot about it besides that. I took a picture of the front of the cabinet and the two stamp marks located on the back of the piece. It says it was Union Made in Kansas City Missouri with the number 44. Also, has a possible part number listed on the back of the piece. I took a picture of that also for you.

On the knobs and the drawer pulls they are a type of plastic maybe melamine?

They have a small metal star in the center of the knobs and on each side of the drawer pull anchoring it through the wood. It is wood construction with glass in the top door and it has two red stencled type decoration painted from the inside of the glass door. If you could tell me what it was called or maybe when it was produced or by whom it was produced that would be awesome.

I appreciate any info you could provide.

Thanks in advance,
Leslie Jackson

John Henry Belter, born in 1804, is well known in the furniture and cabinet making industry for being an innovative designer and is famous for his rosewood furniture, and Rococo designs.

This was a new wood used in making furniture that Belter used predominantly. He came from Germany and replaced the famous Duncan Phyfe who had made furniture in New York for almost half a century.

Belter made mostly Louis XV reproductions and his unique style was known as the early Victorian. This style that he developed consisted of using limited rosewood to create bold carvings and concaved chair backs.

From 1884 to about 1865, he created drawing room suites for rich New Yorkers. This was his trademark and each piece distinctly had the finger molded cabriole legs that became famous during that period of time.

There are many pieces of John Henry Belter’s furniture still in circulation today including sofas, a few lady armchairs, some side chairs, an ottoman, an intricate oval table, and a child’s chair. You can easily see a Belter design because of the laminated chair backs that he used.

This was made into a concave shape by using 6 to 8 pieces of thin rosewood layers which were then glued together. He also used various scroll and floral motifs will a rose or shell crest on the back of the chair. The center of the chair was usually upholstered and framed with a carved rosewood border with braiding, scroll or rose bud designs. The backs of all the chairs in Belter’s collection were always done in a plain rosewood panel.

John Henry Belter started his furniture business at 40 Chatham Square when he arrived in America in 1833, but moved a few years later to 327 Broadway and then in 1855 he set up his business in the larger premises of 1222 Third Avenue.

This is where he stayed until his death in 1865. Not only is Belter renowned for his unique style of furniture making, but he even worked closely with piano maker who founded the Steinway Piano Firm to help him create rosewood piano cases that are still used today and are the basic design of a grand piano, with rounded edges to soften the sharp edges of the instrument, and large, heavy cabriole legs to hold the weight of them.

A few years before his death, Belter destroyed all of his designs to ensure that no one could copy them, and this is also one of the reasons that Belter original are so hard to find and that they are very expensive if you do find them. The workers that John Henry Belter used were always from his home country Germany, in the Black Forest region of Alsace-Lorraine, and trained in lace like knife work and deep cut carvings. He considered them to be the best and most skillful carvers and would not use any other workers to carve his furniture.

John Henry Belter was a legend in the cabinetry industry and his furniture fetches huge prices today.  He is one of the innovators and designers that shaped the history of furniture making and is considered by many to be a pioneer. The laminating method that he used was a secret for many, many years, but eventually he did patent it in 1858. He will always be considered as one of the greats and a masterful furniture maker of the early Victorian era.

When you are looking into antiques you will find that many period pieces are intricate and beautifully made. Many have high price values, but can you always tell what period of time they are from and what they are classified as.

Victorian pieces of furniture are perhaps the most popular antiques to this day, and as such, you have to know exactly what makes this style of furniture distinct, so that you can benefit from selling it to a collector, or if you want to start collecting them yourself.

The date of the Victorian period is from the late 19th century  from about 1850 to 1910 and there were various types of woods used including rosewood, mahogany and walnut to make all kinds of furniture. Usually the designs of these pieces were chucky and heavy with very dark finishes and ornate carvings. There various decorative elements added, and marble top were often used.

The Victorian furniture is often referred to as being clumsy. The next thing you can look at to determine whether a piece of furntirue is from the Victorian era, is to look at the type of finish used. Until the Victorian period only one type of finish existed that was clear, and this was called shellac.

The varnished and lacquers that we know of were not developed until later into the 1800’s. Usually the finish of a piece of furniture is shellac if it dates back to before 1860. Sometimes on very old pieces, they even used milk paint, wax, or oils to seal the wood. To date French furniture you can look and see if the finish is French polished, which is a version of the shellac.

For materials and trimmings, you can tell a Victorian piece by the puff that it has. This puff is usually due to overstuffing, because everything during that time had to be luxurious and ornate. Carvings, curved edges, rounded segments an scroll were used all the time, and braiding was also used frequently, normally in jeweled tones. Gold was a favorite color to use for upholstery.

Another way to tell if a piece of furniture comes from the Victorian era or not is to look at the types of nails and screw used. Before 1790 the rose head nails were used. These were forged by blacksmiths and are irregular in shape.

From 1790 until about 1850, the nails used were square headed nails, and from about 1850 when machines started to be used to make objects, the headless, tapered, machine cut nails were used in furniture making. Then in about 1890 the Penny and Brad nails were used.

In the authentic Victorian pieces you will also see that most hand planning was done for the unseen parts of furniture and you can find this out by feeling with your hand along the underlying parts and inside the drawers. You will feel uneven rows in the wood.

Another thing to look out for in chairs and arm rests are the dowels used to hold them together. If a piece is from the Victorian era, it will not have rounded dowels, but squared tenons instead. The wood used will also be thicker and contain virtually no blemishes. Knotty pine was not used at all by olden day furniture makers. By looking at the non mahogany furniture that was painted, you can also determine how old it is and whether it takes back to the Victorian era.

Once you know what to look out for when you go shopping to an antiques fair just to your local antique shop (I like Driscolls Antiques) , you might just fine the bargain of the century.

In antique furniture which dates back more than 100 years, there are various styles that you can find and if you know what to look out for, you can identify antiques from replicas and reproduction pieces. This will allow you to make an informed choice when going furniture shopping for antique pieces, or determine how much to pay for a piece of furniture that you think is antique.

Looking at how old a chair, wardrobe or desk is, you can look at the wood that was used, the type of joinery, the saw markings, the hidden pieces on the furniture, the carvings, the style, and the finishes. With some elements like the styling and decorative features, it can be harder to tell how old a piece is, as there are many reproduction pieces and design features that were used over many eras.

There are lots of styles that you can choose from and they all have distinguishing markings and features. Usually you will find pieces that are limited to the America Colonial and Traditional English periods at garage sales and in second hand shops, and in some hip boutique hotels like britannia hotel manchester or Andy Thorton . However, if you want to find the genuine Louis the XV chair you will have to go to a professional dealer or antiques fair (I suggest You to have a look here: What antique furniture .com) .

Looking at the styles you get, the older English pieces are categorized into Queen Anne, Georgian Chippendale, Georgian Adam, Georgian Hepplewhite, Late 18th Century, Georgian Sheraton, and Regency.

In the American Colonial styles you get the Early Colonial, Late Colonial, Federal, Pennsylvania Dutch, and the Shaker furniture. Here you will find more detail about what each style consists of:

English pieces

Queen Anne – This style comes from the early 18th century, and is mainly made from walnut, cherry-wood, oak, mahogany, and maple. These pieces normally consist of lots of curves which are graceful and plenty of curved legs, there were no rungs or any kinds of stretchers used, and they were simple and elegant with not too much decoration.

Georgian Chippendale – This style dates back to the late 18th century, and was predominantly made from mahogany. They are a slight elaboration from the Queen Anne style with more ornate carvings and features, many of which were quite bold. Many themes were also used such as Chinese, Rococo, English, and Greek Classic. The chair backs were especially intricate.

Georgian Adam – Also dating to the late 18th century, and also using mainly mahogany, the Georgian Adam used slender lines and was influenced mainly by Greek Classical styles. As such, fluted columns were used frequently and delicate carvings were introduced, like the draped garlands which were a favored design.

Georgian Hepplewhite – This style is from the late 18th century, and uses mahogany and satinwood inlays or veneer. This style was based on the Adam, with tapered legs, and oval, heart, or shield shaped backs of chairs.

Georgian Sheraton – Also from the late 18th century, made from mahogany, this is similar to the Hepplewhite, only straighter lines were used and the Classic Greek influence saw lyre shaped chair backs.

Regency – Dating to the early 19th century, mahogany was favored and the designs were bold, simple, and more functional, with colors being used.

American Colonial stylesEarly Colonial

Dating to the 17th century, this style used maple, pine, birch, and walnut with heavy decorations and carvings. These were solid constructions and lots of square lines were used.

Late Colonial – From the 18th century, this style used mainly pine and mahogany, and the pieces were interpretations of the English Georgian and Queen Anne styles. One example is the Windsor Chair.

Federal – This dates to the early 19th century and used woods like mahogany and cherry. These were interpretations of the Georgian styles with some French influence and are heavier than the English styles. Examples are the Hitchcock Chari and the Boston rocker.

Pennsylvania Dutch – This style is from the late 17th century to mid-19th and used pine, maple, walnut, and fruit woods. They are plain Germanic styled pieces and are solid and usually painted colorfully with Germanic decorations.

Shaker – This dates from the late 18th century to the mid-19th century with pieces being made from pine and maple. They are very functional with no decoration but of excellent design and craftsmanship.

Kenny Korn knows wood, he knows all kinds of furniture, and he knows the ins and outs of restoration. That makes him, in turn, a handy man to know.

Korn, 55, is short and wiry, helpful and polite, with a ready smile and a down-home accent. He’s originally from the Mehlville area; his father was his first inspiration.

“My dad was really good with wood,” he says, “and I used to watch him. It always fascinated me to see what a piece of wood looked like when it was finished, if it was done right.”

Korn worked with wood from the time he was a teenager, but he didn’t get into it as a career until later. From the age of 20 to 35, he worked in heavy equipment repair and welding. “But I always fiddled around with wood after work, doing little boxes or maybe refinishing a chair for somebody.”

After suffering some health problems, Korn got into refinishing as a business instead of a hobby. He started out by working as a helper for Percy Pfohl, “a master. He was one of the top (refinishers) in St. Louis, and I really wanted to be like him. Every time we went out (on a job), I took notes. I still have that book.”

Later, Korn went out on his own, working with antique dealers in the Cherokee District: “I’ve seen a lot of pieces and asked a lot of questions, and the dealers have given me a lot of knowledge.”

Among the things he learned was the reputation, quality and peculiarities of different manufacturers of furniture “from the old days.” He’s worked on brands that were originally “real cheap — poor man’s, worker-man’s furniture. Now, they’re considered really nice pieces. I know how they did things,” and that makes it easier to put them right.

Today, Korn is the chief technician for Centaur Building Services in St. Louis, where he’s in charge of all facets of refinishing furniture, from giving estimates to delivering the finished pieces.

Centaur’s primary business is cleaning offices, and Korn often goes out to office buildings late at night to work on desks and chairs when no one is around. That’s given him expertise with both old and new furniture.

He says he can fix almost anything, although some cheaper modern furniture, in particular, isn’t really worth his time and the owner’s money. “When there’s a big gash in the piece, I use body putty, like on automobiles. It doesn’t take stain, so you have to cover up that body putty to match everything else. It takes skill to make sure it’s not sticking out like a sore thumb.”

Korn cites a 160-year-old china cabinet that was a candidate for being dragged to the curb when its new owner called him in; its doors were badly warped, and it was spattered with paint.

“I cleaned it up and discovered it was pieced together out of different kinds of hardwood. It had a bow in the top and gaps between the boards — but I was able to get the bow out and make it level.” Today the cabinet is a prized feature in the owner’s dining room.

That’s his favorite part of restoration: transforming battered old furniture into something beautiful. “I think in my mind how it looked when I first saw it; I think how it looked when it was made. It’s really rewarding to bring a piece back to life.”

Source

If you have a beautiful piece of antique furniture, but the furniture is really not showing its best or if some parts are coming off, you have to take steps to restore and repair it.

Restoring and repairing antique furniture through a set of processes helps to bring back the look and appeal of the original piece.

The process of restoring and repairing antique furniture must be done really carefully because in no way should you ruin the antique quality of the piece. So, modern furniture fixing products cannot be used. Let’s take a closer look on how to restore an antique wood chair and also make minor repairs.

1° Light dust cleaning

Begin the process of repairing your antique chair by giving it a light dust cleaning. This gives you a clean work area on which you can work better.

If your chair has any carvings, you would need a toothbrush to get the dirt out of that area. Some people resort to using steel wood pad, but the problem with using it is that it might remove the painted finish that is applied to such types of old furniture. So, the only alternative is to use toothbrush for areas which have carvings and for edges and use a soft cloth to clean the remaining areas.

2° Stripp off its old finish

Now how do you refinish antique chair? First the chair is ready to be stripped off its old finish.

In order to do this you require using a semi-paste stripper. You have to apply it using a paintbrush and you should apply it evenly, but not overdo the thing.

After two or three minutes from application, gently scrape it off the surface and you can see the old finish coming off.

3° Apply lacquer

The next step is to apply lacquer as this helps to neutralize the work of the stripper.

4° Remove old stains

Now comes the part where you have to remove old stains. You need to use oxalic acid for this purpose. Follow the instructions on how to a use it and apply with a paintbrush on all areas where stains have to be removed.  After it has been applied on the surface, it leaves a powdery reside, which should be cleaned off using warm water and a sponge.

Looking into minor repairs

The next aspect is looking into minor repairs. If you find any small joints to be missing or if a leg is wobbly, you need to find replacement parts to get it into proper condition again.

The problem here is that you have to buy the exact replica of the original, otherwise your furniture won’t be an antique piece at all.

So, check out online sites and shops that specialize in offering such parts and finish your minor repair work.

Gluing for fixing

While repairing, you might also find that some parts need gluing for fixing. Do not use any of the modern glue products in the market. These once again replace the antique value of your chair. Go in for hide glue, because this is the kind of glue that was used in the making of these chairs and you have to use the same ones. If you can’t find one in your area, order it online.

In case of major repairing, unless you are experienced in building wood furniture, you cannot do it yourself as the process of fixing such broken pieces is quite complicated.

Therefore, find a professional antique furniture repair shop, to get the job properly done by a professional, otherwise you might land up doing something that reduces the original look of the piece and hence its value.

Look into these points on how to restore antique wood chair and you can be sure of repairing your antique chair so that it get’s back its original look and appeal. Remember since materials used in its making date back to more than a century, using any replacement parts will reduce the value of the piece.

When you have an insect infestation in your antique wood furniture, like termites, this is a serious problem that must be dealt with effectively and efficiently if you hope to maintain the value of your piece and ensure that the problem doesn’t spread to other antiques that you have.

Termites are not a common problem when it comes to antique furniture, but depending on the location of the furniture and how long it was left unprotected, termites can easily move in and infest your precious antiques. So, what do you do to get rid of them?
Well, the first and most obvious answer is to take the piece of furniture to a pest control expert and fumigation specialist who deals in antique pieces.

They will be able to successfully get rid of the termites and any eggs that have still not hatched in the item without damaging the piece or reducing its value in any way. If there is already significant damage due to termites, your antique wood furniture might need to be restored and fixed to remove the holes and get it back to its original state.

To avoid doing certain things and taking care of your antiques correctly is the easiest way to get rid of termites before they even become a problem.

One thing that you must do is be careful of where you place your items. Termites like water and so placing it in a position that gets moist very quickly will attract them. Not only this, but the moisture can also damage your antique in other ways.

Checking your house for termites often will prevent them from nesting in the first place. If you find that there are small exit holes where termites or other bugs have been, you can take the item (if it is just a drawer for example) and place it inside a bag along with the appropriate poison for about 2 weeks.

Another way to get rid of bugs and termites that you think are inside your piece of antique furniture is to bag the items, if they are small enough and place them inside a freezer for 2 weeks. This will kill any termites and you will then need to leave them in the bags for another 2 days once they are out of the freezer to warm up again. This will ensure that no moisture condenses on the wood which will cause mould.

When it comes to antiques, you should try to use any non chemical product wherever possible, and you can find an exterminator that offers chemical free fumigation using special green products like they use to treat wood in green building, this could be the best answer. These products are natural and do not pose any threat to the antique piece.

They will get rid of the termites without damaging the finish of the wood or that actual grain. You should also always use protection methods to ensure that you don’t get termites.

If your antique is stored in your attic or not displayed in your house, there is more chance of it getting termites. Rather, instead of hiding your antique, display it and ensure that it gets dusted regularly. If you don’t want to dust it too much, you can use a special antique cover, but having it out in the open rather than locked away amongst a whole lot of other items, is much better and will keep any bugs including termites away.

There are various types of furniture that you can get in all different styles dating back hundreds of years, but how can you tell which pieces are the real McCoy, and which ones are replicas, or later models?

Also, when is a piece of furniture classified as an antique, vintage, or just old?

Well here some things that you can look out for when you want to buy an antique or sell one that you think is an antique so that you don’t get taken for a ride:

When looking at a piece of furniture there are certain categories that yours can fall under. The first is second hand furniture, which is dated from the 1920’s through to the 1950’s and many people do mistake these styles for antiques, as many designs were reused during this time.

True antiques are more than 100 years old are found in the following conditions. Then you get utilitarian furniture, which are old pieces that are ideal for everyday use, but that museums have no interest in such as joint stools and dry sinks.

The next category is the decorative, which are items that are intricate and usually better quality than furniture of today, normally Louis XIV revival, or Baker furniture.

Then you get the museum pieces which are too fragile to be used and are just displayed as part a collection. These are normally medieval, French, Tudor style or Louis XIV.

When you are looking to buy an antique there are many things that you must look for and if you are not sure about where to start or if you are concerned that you are looking at a replication and not the real thing, then you should get an appraisal expert to help you.

Sometimes you will also find true antiques sitting in your grandmother’s attic or perhaps a local second hand store will have something antique that they don’t know the true value of. This is the perfect time to buy as you will be making a sold investment. When you choose to buy something antique, however, remember to always look for the quality of the piece and if it needs to be refinished find out exactly what needs to be done first.

As mentioned above a true antique is more than 100 years old, but some stores value furniture older than 50 years as antique and fine antique dealers will label items antique if they are more than 150 years old. The best way to find out is get the exact age of the piece.

The value of the piece will be determined by various factors including the artistry, the conditions of the piece, and the country it comes from. Most antiques you will find come from England and France, but this will also depend on where you are located. In the West people consider antiques any pieces that came across the mountains, in the East, the Queen Anne furniture are considered antiques, while in the South of America, an antique is something dating back to before the Civil War.

When looking at antiques you will not find any pieces (or maybe very few) that are originals from the 1500 or 1600, but you will find genuine reproduction pieces from this era which are also very valuable. To spot an antique you can also look at various things like the joinery. You will be able to tell if a machine was used or not, and machine made furniture was not made until the 1860’s.  You can also look at the saw marks, because any rounded or circular markings could not have been made until this time as well. Before 1860 a plane, drawknife, or spokeshave was used which all cause straight saw markings.